Nascot and Park Essay Example for Free

Nascot and Park Essay How do the land use, lodging and natural quality in Tudor, Callowland, Nascot and Park wards of Watford influence the general attractive quality of the wards? I will presently talk about essential information in regards to the four wards, and not to incorporate any auxiliary information, including registration information or examined information from the Internet. A shading coded guide will give a simple visual report of the dispersion and partition of different lodging types, also a where timberlands and parks are spread out, and connect that to the natural nature of every one of the four wards. I will plate each ward independently and afterward close it in a last passage toward the finish of this area. The finishing up section will contain diagrams and graphs to help upgrade the examinations. Obviously while talking about the allure of some place, you need to consider who it is for. For instance, an understudy would not live in a 5 room isolates house. PARK WARD This was the primary ward visited and because of the way this was the first occasion when I had visited these wards, this ward has left a space in my brain of my initial introduction of Watford. We started north up Hempstead street and brought a left into Stratford way, where our hands on work started. Little disengaged lodging secured this zone. The field sketch beneath gives you how close the houses limits are, just as the style and age of the houses. At the point when we were at the intersection of Stratford Way and Parkside Drive, the primary natural quality study was taken. The outcomes have been organized inside the examination and finishing up passage toward the finish of this segment. We at that point took a right, and headed up Parkside Drive, considering that we were on the limit of isolates lodging and the Cassiobury Park. As we proceeded up Parkside Drive, we were stood up to with semi-disconnected lodging following Richmond Drive on the correct hand side. Semi-Detached lodging could now be seen on either roadside. We were because of take the following transforming on the correct which drove us into Langley Way. On the intersection of Langley Way and Parkside Drive, the second ecological quality overview was taken. As we transformed up into Langley Way, we saw semi-disconnected lodging on either roadside until Richmond street on the right, and until Bellmount Wood Avenue on the left. The flood of isolates lodging proceeded from that point onwards. We continued up Langley Way, until we met an indirect which split Langley Way and Cassiobury Drive. Our first locating of neighborhood shops were seen on the contrary side of the indirect, this is shaded in RED on the shading coded map. Other than these couple of shops and a bar on the left hand side, disengaged lodging was surrounding us. We contined up Langley Way until Devereux Drive was seen at a 90 point to Langley Way. We continued left were as yet encircled by confined lodging. At the highest point of Devereux Drive, we could see that the further up we went, the more trees and greenery were to be seen behind the houses, and at the highest point of the street, we took a trail left which drove us into Rough Wood. We followed the pathway round until we came into Glen Way, which was the place we ran over our first sightings of terraced houses. The third and last ecological quality overview for this ward was taken here. We followed Glen Way round to one side and hit the primary street called Hempstead Road where we crossed onto the opposite side and took a left until we went over Rosecroft Drive on the correct hand side. Where we left Glen Way and entered Hempstead Road, was the fringe between the two wards, Park and Nascot. So in rundown, Park ward contains little separated houses in a quiet climate and all around avoided the occupied Hempstead Road. Despite the fact that Cassiobury Drive, Parkside Drive and Woodland Drive are the three fundamental streets of Park ward, they don't experience issues of traffic which leaves Park ward as a quiet and family-accommodating region. The huge park inside the ward will inconclusively add to the property costs as property costs are firmly founded on the spot, area, area, and because of the way that they are disconnected, this leaves a decent picture in my psyche of my initial introduction of Watford. Nascot Ward As we started our excursion down Hempstead Road and into Rosecroft Drive, we saw that in spite of the fact that Hempstead Road is occupied, the houses inside Rosecroft Drive and the encompassing street were genuinely huge disconnected houses. At the intersection of The Ridgeway, and Rosecroft Drive, the principal ecological quality review of this ward was taken, which got excellent grades when considering its area close to a very bustling street. We at that point brought a directly down The Ridgeway, and saw how the houses were in acceptable keep and genuinely large. The street we were in (The Ridgeway) was genuinely peaceful and in great condition because of the way that rough terrain/private stopping was accessible. The field sketch underneath, shows a run of the mill house inside Nascot ward.

How to write to your clients - The Lawyer - Emphasis

The most effective method to keep in touch with your customers - The Lawyer The most effective method to keep in touch with your customers The Lawyer Legal advisors are not eminent for their punchy writing. Be that as it may, customers don't have the opportunity to be puzzled by befuddling wording and verbosity; nor do they acknowledge ineffectively organized contentions and overtechnical clarifications. What they need is clear and brief exhortation. Regardless of whether you are composing a legitimate understanding or an email, here are some broad tips that will assist you with improving your composing aptitudes: Concentrate on your peruser. Consider who will understand it and what data they need. Consider whether they need back-up detail just as forthright suggestions. Consider the amount they definitely think about the subject, what their possible demeanor to the exhortation will be and if there are a particular issues concerning them. When composing for partners, make your guidelines understood. Abstain from delivering bunch messages that are a brain dump of all the activity focuses. This ensures something doesn't complete in light of the fact that everybody trusts another person is doing it. Illuminate who needs to do what. Never utilize the creative cycle to explain your musings. Have an away from of what to compose previously, else you chance having no legitimate structure. Consider the fundamental branches of knowledge and issues you have to cover. Ensure they answer the inquiries: what, where, when, how, why and who. At that point utilize each going to conceptualize all the focuses identified with that subject. Next, consider the structure and choose what goes where and in what position. Just data that is basic to all perusers ought to go in the primary body of the content. Be heartless and consign any data that is significant or important to reference sections or commentaries. What's more, ensure your principle message is at the bleeding edge, not covered underneath layers of detail and supporting proof. Keep passages and sentences short. Long sections and overwhelming squares of content are a genuine mood killer. So are long, complex sentences that must be perused more than once to comprehend. Avoid long words and colorful expressions. As opposed to mainstream thinking, these are not an indication of mind or demonstrable skill. Customers are excessively occupied to invest energy interpreting them. Utilize dynamic language at every possible opportunity. Dynamic action words make your composing simpler to peruse. So compose, X explored the customers job in the venture, instead of, The pretended by the customer in the undertaking was examined by X. Favor action words over things. Use action words, for example, consider and give as opposed to structures, for example, offer thought to and the arrangement of. Maintain a strategic distance from poor syntax, accentuation and spelling this will sabotage your validity and recommend you couldn't care less. Robert Ashton, Chief Executive, Emphasis

Therapeutic Role-Playing for Phobia Treatment

Therapeutic Role-Playing for Phobia Treatment Phobias Treatment Print Therapeutic Role-Playing for Phobia Treatment By Lisa Fritscher Lisa Fritscher is a freelance writer and editor with a deep interest in phobias and other mental health topics. Learn about our editorial policy Lisa Fritscher Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on August 05, 2016 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on April 12, 2019 nullplus / Getty Images More in Phobias Treatment Causes Symptoms and Diagnosis Types Therapeutic role-playing has proved to be an effective treatment for phobia sufferers, who often believe that a feared situation is inherently dangerous. This type of therapy allows a therapist and patient to act out scenarios that are difficult for the phobia sufferer. Through role-playing, the patient learns new behaviors to help overcome their particular phobia. Treating Phobias Many professionals believe that the most important causes of phobias are the environmental triggers and learned behaviors. They argue that a phobia is ultimately a learned response to a stimulus. By “unlearning” the response and substituting rational reactions, the phobia can be cured. This model favors therapy as a preferred treatment. Many phobia sufferers are best treated with a combination of medication and therapy. Most psychiatrists do not perform the types of therapy best suited to phobia treatment. Therefore, psychiatrists and therapists often form referral networks to help clients meet both needs. Mental health centers often have a range of mental health specialists on staff, offering their clients a one-stop solution. Individual Therapy for Phobias Individual therapy, which can include therapeutic role-playing, allows the therapist and client to focus on each other, building a rapport and working together to solve the clients issue. However,  psychoanalysis and related therapies may progress for months or even  years,  while  brief therapies, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, or CBT can produce results in just a few sessions. How Does Role-Playing Therapy Work? Therapeutic role-playing is a technique that allows a person with a phobia to practice new behaviors. In a role-playing session, the therapist takes the identity of someone that the person is afraid to confront, such as a parent or employer. The person then interacts with the therapist, utilizing behaviors that she has learned during therapy. After the role-playing session is complete, a debriefing takes place in which the client and therapist discuss what happened and ways to improve the interaction. This technique can be particularly helpful for those dealing with social phobia, germ phobia, or other interpersonal phobias. How Does Role-Playing Therapy Help? When someone with a phobia is interacting with a therapist, he or she can put to use the new behaviors that were learned during treatment. Many people with phobias suffer from social or interpersonal fears that prevent them from actively participating in some aspect of their lives. Role-Playing Therapy can help people overcome their fears by learning new behavioral techniques. How well role-playing works often depends on the severity of the phobia. A good mental health professional will customize a treatment plan for the patient, which may include role-playing therapy. The 9 Best Online Therapy Programs

Outline Of A Speech On Civil Rights - 916 Words

Kaija Scheuerman COMM 105-BO2 Informative Speech Outline I. Introduction A. In 2016, there were almost 1,400 recorded arrest related deaths, and in arrest African American people are three times more likely to be killed than white people (Banks, 2016). B. Racism is an age-old issue that was named during the Civil War, fought during the 1960s, and is still lingering in modern society. C. I’m not African American, but I am an ally; I have friends and loved ones who are African American, and I cannot stand by and watch people die. D. This speech is about civil inequality in the 1960s, the importance of standing up against it, and how discrimination is still very much woven into the fabric of our society today. II. Body of Presentation A.†¦show more content†¦d. The gesture was seen as a â€Å"Nazi-like salute†, an expression of anger, a symbol of black power, or just bad manners (Hoffer, 162). e. Carlos and Smith were kicked out of the Olympic Village and blacklisted for the rest of their careers (Carlos, 124). B. This photo emphasizes the importance of silent protest and the power of gesture, political climates experience incredible shifts with movements such as these. 1. It was the start of decades of political protests and civil inequality. 2. Recently, another form of silent protest has been occurring called the â€Å"Take a Knee† Movement in 2017 (Smith, 2017). 3. It started with the NFL player Colin Kaepernick and when he decided to kneel during the national anthem. 4. The purpose of this silent movement was to protest police brutality (Smith, 2017). 5. Currently, athletes everywhere are kneeling during the national anthem. C. This photo called attention to the issues in civil equality that are still prevalent today, it was the start of a very long fight for equality. 1. This photo is important especially within the context of the Black Lives Matter and Take a Knee movements that are occurring. 2. Like the 1968 Olympic Games, millions of Americans are ostracizing these athletes for disrespecting the flag and the overall country (Brown, 2017). 3. This photo and the subsequent Take a Knee movement show how powerful gesture and silent protest is. a. A raised fist was nothing moreShow MoreRelatedAccording To Bethel University (2011), Leadership Is An800 Words   |  4 PagesAccording to Bethel University (2011), leadership is an evolving interaction between the leader, the followers, and the situation. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s leadership role in the civil rights movement represents a great leader. In addition, his leadership vividly portrays the dynamic between the leader, the followers, and the situation. While Dr. King’s dream for racial equality lacks fulfillment, interracial relations and equality have substantially improved as a direct result of Dr. King’sRead MoreKant s Views On Freedom Essay1302 Words   |  6 PagesIn the following paper, I will outline how my understanding of freedom has changed since reading Immanuel Kant’s An Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment? Firstly, I will state the views that I held on freedom before I read the text, framing them within a political context by labelling myself as a civil libertarian and explaining what that means. Subsequently, I will provide my interpretation of Kant’s views on freedom through the â€Å"positive† and â€Å"negative† senses and how, for Kant, that thereRead MoreThe Life Legacy of Rosa Parks Essay958 Words   |  4 PagesInformative speech outline- courtesy of Tiffany Smith who gave this speech right after Rosa Parks died. 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Analysis of Nikes Air Max Shoes Example

Essays on Analysis of Nikes Air Max Shoes Book Report/Review ï » ¿NIKE Air-Max Customer Traits: For a successful and experienced business like Nike, maintaining customer loyalty through clearly understanding the customer is the key. This is done through having a clear understanding of consumer ´s geo-demographics, psychographics and other personality traits. In a business where Nike faces direct competition from brands like like Adidas, Puma, Reebok and indirect competition from other shoe wear like Converse, Sketchers, Timberland etc, differentiation strategy is very important. Nike has been successfully maintaining its differentiation strategy with help of Brand Ambassadors, massive campaigning, and producing differentiated products like Nike Air Max Shoes. Nike ´s Air Max Shoes possess a highly competitive advantage due to its differentiation strategy in bringing in a new air technology that provides comfort, long term satisfaction along with durability in brand (Berthon et al, 2011). A clear customer profiling and segmentation for Nike Air Max is described below: Customer Segment: The idea behind Nike Air Max was to create comfortable shoes for athletes for sporting and casual users casual wear purpose. If we go along with the tag line of  ´Just Do It ´, it refers to all those people who have a drive and motivation to excel in life, be it sports, and be it other aspects. But since sports is considered to be a true demonstration of one ´s skills, abilities and passion, the excellence aspect in Nike Air Max Shoes it shown by athletes (Goldmen Pepson, 1998). Target Market: Target market is explained on the basis of geo-demographics (geographics and demographics), psychographics and brand positioning: Geographic Segmentation: Nike Air Max, like all other Nike assortments is a global brand therefor there is no geographic boundary. With the help of franchises, company-owned outlets, exports and online sales, Nike Air Max is available worldwide to its broad target market. Demographic Segmentation: Age: The age segment include young people, mainly including teens and youth. However, the purpose and spirit of Nike as a brand is for the people who are young at heart and have a passion to excel, the demographics in terms of age can be extended to 18 till 40 years (Rubini, 2010). Sex: The market for Air Max includes both Males and Females. Income Level: Nike, as compared to other snicker brands and shoes, is an expensive brand, therefore the income levels for targeted customers include middle-upper to upper-upper class. Psychographic Segmentation: The psychographics determine the consumer inner, intrinsic nature and personality which is external factors and situations and here in particular, with purchasing. Some factors that apply in this case are: Lifestyle: In terms of Nike Air Max, the consumer psychology is the need to stay comfortable and enjoy the experience, be it in sports or any other field. Therefore for Nike, it is critical that it targets the customer need of satisfaction and comfort during their experience to excel in any aspect of life. Personality: As discussed, Nike Air Max is a brand for people young at heart and full of spirit, therefore it aims at creating such image by advertising celebrities like Rafal Nadal, Christiano Ronaldo, Ashley Cole and Mario Balotelli. Considering Maslow ´s hierarchy of needs with respect to personality, the target market of Nike Air Max falls in the category of  ´Self Esteem ´ needs and  ´Self-actualization ´ needs. It is when people want to be associated with Nike, due to its brand name and high class product assortments, they also want to self-actualize by aiming to reach the zenith by excelling in their field (Fortin Uncles, 2011). Positioning Positioning defines the perception of brand into the minds of consumers. Therefore even though different marketing, branding aspects work on the background, the similar positioning is formed into the minds of consumers. On technical grounds, the positioning of Nike Air Max is based on the unique technology of storing air pockets into the shoes in order to give more comfort to the users (Neale Fullerton, 2010). This translates into the minds of consumers as unique, techy shoes that give style, separates from others along with giving comfort and ease. Nike Air Max has been successful at maintaining this positioning into the minds of consumers as they consider the brand as different and sporty as compared to any other brand from direct competitors like Adidas and Reebok and they treat Air Max exclusively. References: Berthon, P. Campbell, C. Pitt, L Ian, M. (2011). Creative consumers: awareness, attitude and action. Journal of Consumer Marketing [internet], 28 (7). Pp, 500-507. Available from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=17003528show=abstract [Accessed 08 May, 2013] Fortin, D. Uncles, M. (2011). The first decade: emerging issues of twenty first century in consumer marketing. Journal of Consumer Marketing [internet], 28(7). Pp. 472-475. Available from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=17003574show=abstract [Accessed 08 May, 2013] Goldman, R. Pepson, S. (1998). Nike Culture: The sign of Swoosh (Cultural Icons Series). London. SAGE Publications Neale, L. Fullerton, S. (2010). The international search for ethics norms: which consumer behaviours do consumers consider un(acceptable). Journal of Services Marketing [internet], 24(6). Pp, 476-486. Available from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/case_studies.htm/journals.htm?articleid=1886201show=htmlWT.mc_id=alsoread [Accessed 08 May, 2013] Rubini, A. (2010). The role of brand in consumer behaviour: A case study of how sneakers have turned into status symbol. Savonia University of Applied Sciences (internet). Available from: http://theseus17-kk.lib.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/16097/Rubini_Andrea.pdf?sequence=1 [Accessed 08 May, 2013]

Corprate Global Strategy Free Essays

string(51) " research and carrying out the designated reading\." Final Year Core Unit Corporate Global Strategy Hemis Code: 5J3060 UNIT HANDBOOK 2011/2012 Tutors: Maria Allen Room 901d 0161 247 6527 m. allen@mmu. ac. We will write a custom essay sample on Corprate Global Strategy or any similar topic only for you Order Now uk Carole Forbes Room 901a 0161 247 3830 c. forbes@mmu. ac. uk Dr. Panagiotis Kokkalis Room 808a 0161 247 6641 p. kokkalis@mmu. ac. uk Rationale Strategic management has become an integral mechanism for firms operating in the global economy, which is characterised by its high level of integration and cross-national operation. Strategic management issues relate to all aspects of an organisation, including its relationship with the environment and its internal processes. Accordingly, a vast amount of research has been conducted and published in the academic field of strategic management. Yet, far from showing a consensus, this literature is populated by a diversity of approaches, schools of thoughts, and paradigms. Understanding strategic management entails studying traditional and orthodox approaches to achieving and sustaining competitive advantage, as well as evaluating new and nnovative ways of organising and strategising in a global environment. Aims * To provide insights into the concepts relating to corporate and global strategy in the context of multinational, international and small to medium enterprises * To identify the impact of micro and macro influences on organisational strategising * To understand variables involved in strategic decision-making processes Unit Learning Outcomes On completing this unit, you should be able to: 1. Identify the key corporate and global level strategic management concepts. 2. Critique the concepts relating to the corporate and global levels of strategy in relation to a range of multinational and small to medium business enterprises. 3. Abstract from the global environment the key factors driving strategic change. 4. Critically evaluate the strategies of a range of enterprises involved in both manufacturing and service areas of business. 5. Measure the impact of global drivers on the operation and development of multinational enterprises. 6. Think creatively and develop the ability to recognise different strategic theories and practices in organisations. Assessment Coursework 40% comprising one element – an individual strategic analysis report assessing learning outcomes 2, 4, 5, 6. (See the brief below) Examination 60% – assessing learning outcomes 1, 2, 3, and 6 Assessment BA (HONS) BUSINESS MANAGEMENT BA (HONS) BUSINESS STUDIES COMBINED HONOURS CORPORATE AND GLOBAL STRATEGY You are required to conduct a strategic analysis of an international company of your choice. You should choose a company in which you have worked; have some knowledge, or one that has a high media profile. If you are in doubt about your choice of company, consult your tutor. You should use as the focus for your analysis a topic taken from the lecture programme and apply this to your chosen organisation to look at the particular aspects of the strategy within that organisation. However, this should be set in the context of the broader environment in which the organisation operates. It is important that you relate relevant theoretical frameworks to the empirical information (data) you have gathered in order to analyse, and not merely describe the organisation’s strategy. You should aim to evaluate the viability of the firm’s current strategy and make any recommendations for changes to the strategy that you consider to be appropriate. This analytical report should be no more than 3,500 words in length, should demonstrate your ability to identify and employ relevant academic concepts, theories and models, and should be fully referenced using the Harvard referencing system (refer to examples in handbook). Please attend the assignment preparation tutorials (see schedule below) where you will be provided with further information about the required content and scope of the work. In the event of a late submission, university regulations will apply. Submission date: Week commencing 16th January 2012 An assessment pro-forma is attached below for guidance. MANCHESTER METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY BUSINESS SCHOOL Course: BA (Hons) Business, BA Combined Honors; BA (Hons) Business Studies Year: FinalSubject: Corporate Global Strategy| Assignment: Strategic AnalysisStudent:Tutor:| Mark:| 1st:(as 2. i +) creative, innovative, intellectual depth, extraordinary quality of work| 2. :competent, complete, insight observation, analytical and critical, total clarity | 2. ii:adequate, good coverage, some sound analysis, allowable flaws | 3rd:just sufficient, some theory, some observation, flawed but not failing | Fail:Simply incomplete OR totally uncritical OR no analysis OR inadequate material| THE INTRODUCTION sets the scene; and it indicates the areas to be covered, and in what order. | 1st 2. i 2. ii 3rd Fail| | THE LITERATURE/SOURCES/ surveyed is adequate in amount and qual ity, is relevant to the selected topic. 1st 2. i 2. ii 3rd Fail| | The DEPTH OF ANALYSIS is sufficient, with a critical approach; underlying concepts are investigated. No unsupported statements: there is evidence for substantial arguments. | 1st 2. i 2. ii 3rd Fail| | THE APPLICATION OF RELEVANT MODELS has an appropriate focus in the analysis of the specific company. | 1st 2. i 2. ii 3rd Fail | | THE CONCLUSIONS, drawn from the analysis are realistic and intelligent| 1st 2. i 2. i 3rd Fail| | As an ACADEMIC REPORT, the language is appropriate, the structure is clear and manifest, correct forms of academic referencing are used. | 1st 2. i 2. ii 3rd Fail| | Other comments: Teaching and Learning Strategy Learning will be through a mixture of lectures, seminars, discussions, reading and video material. Students will be encouraged to debate concepts and apply them to practical business situations and their own business experiences. Lectures will be complemented by seminars in which stu dents have the pportunity to apply the theoretical frameworks that are covered in the lectures and gain an in-depth understanding of individual publications in this area. Seminars will take the form of group work, student presentations and discussions (focused on textbook material and journal articles) case studies and feedback. Tutorials The tutorials are intended to provide students with the opportunity to gain a more in-depth understanding of academic studies and apply theoretical frameworks to the analysis of real-world organisations. Tutorials take place every week and usually consist of group discussion and group presentations where appropriate. Students will be expected to prepare for the tutorials by undertaking their own research and carrying out the designated reading. You read "Corprate Global Strategy" in category "Papers" Where students are allocated a specific article/paper/chapter to prepare, they should summarise it, present the main points and then comment on/critique it. To effectively critique the piece, students should research and read around the topic. It is expected that all students will read and prepare for these tutorials and contribute actively to them. The recommended textbook is Bob de Wit Ron Meyer ‘Strategy Process, Content’, Context, an International Perspective’ 4th Edition, Thomson. Some of the designated preparatory reading chapters will be from this text. However, the recommended textbook does not cover every aspect of the unit and additional reading from books and journal articles are indicated for the relevant topics, to support the content of each lecture and the tutorial discussions. The following programme is indicative only; the order, specific content, activities and allocated readings are subject to change and amendments. Week/C| Lectures| Tutorials| Preparatory reading| Term 126 Sept| 1. Introduction to course aims and objectives, content review teaching/learning arrangements, assignment and assessmentCarole Forbes/Maria Allen/Panagiotis Kokkalis| No Tutorial| Practice accessing journal articles from the library electronic resources and Google scholar. Look for:Porter, M. E. (1996)Whittington, R. 2004)| 3 Oct| 2. Origins and ‘nature’ of Strategy. Panagiotis Kokkalis| Groups forming. Introduction to critical analysis. | Read: Porter (1996) Whittington (2004)| 10 Oct| 3. Theory of the firm and entrepreneurship theory Panagiotis Kokkalis| Origins of strategy Readings discussion| Origins of strategy Readings:Porter (1996) Whittington (2004)| 17 Oct| 4. Strategy formationPanagiotis Kokkalis| Assignment workshop 1| Decide on a topic and a companyCHANG E IS EXCLUDED. | 24 Oct| 5. RBVPanagiotis Kokkalis| Strategy formationReadings discussion| Strategy formation. Readings:Mintzberg and McHugh, (1985)| 31 OCT – 4 NOV – RED WEEK| Week/C| Lectures| Tutorials| Preparatory reading| 7 Nov| 6. Competences and CapabilitiesCarole Forbes| Strategy FormationReadings discussion| Strategy FormationReadings:Hodgkinson and Clarke (2007)| 14 Nov| 7. KnowledgePanagiotis Kokkalis| Resource Based ViewReadings discussion | Resource Based ViewReading:Barney (1991)| 21 Nov| 8. Strategic ThinkingPanagiotis Kokkalis| Competences and CapabilitiesReadings discussion| Competences and CapabilitiesReadings:Teece et. al. (1997)| 28 Nov| 9. LeadershipMaria Allen| Knowledge Based ViewReadings discussion| Kowledge Based ViewReadings:Nonaka (1994)| 5 Dec| 10. The International ContextMaria Allen| Workshop| Draft report| 12 Dec| No Lectures on this course| Drop In| | 16 DEC – 9 JAN 2012 – CHRISTMAS BREAK| | Lectures| Tutorials| Preparatory reading| Term2201209 Jan| 11. Drivers of Globalisation and FDIMaria Allen| Knowledge Based ViewReadings discussion| Knowledge Based ViewReadings:Szulanski (1996)| 16 Jan| 12. Strategic AlliancesCarole Forbes ASSIGNMENT DUE| LeadershipReadings discussion| LeadershipReadings:Cyert (1990)| 23 Jan| 13. Structure of industries and markets and the general government and business contextMaria Allen| LeadershipReadings discussion| LeadershipReadings:Case Study: Strategic Leadership and innovation at Apple Inc. Heracleous and Papachroni (2009)Page 681 DeWit and Meyer| 30 Jan| 14. Strategic ChangeCarole Forbes| GlobalisationReadings discussion| GlobalisationReadings:Levitt (1983)| 06 Feb| 15. Strategy as practice, ANT, CoPPanagiotis Kokkalis| GlobalisationReadings discussion| GlobalisationReadings:Douglas and Wind (1987)| 13 – 17 FEB – RED WEEK| Week/C| Lectures| Tutorials| Preparatory reading| 20 Feb| 16. Visiting Lecturer or Corporate Strategy| AlliancesReadings discussion| AlliancesReading:Koza and Lewin (1998)| 05March| 17. Organisational purpose StakeholdersCarole Forbes| AlliancesReadings discussion| AlliancesReading:Gulati et al (2000)| 12March| 18. Corporate Strategy or Q ACarole Forbes| Structure of industries and marketsReadings discussion| Structure of industries and marketsReading:Miller and Friesen (1983) | 19 March| 19. Exam RevisionCarole Forbes| Structure of industries and marketsReadings discussion| Structure of industries and marketsReading:Selsky et al (2007)| 26 March| 20. Exam RevisionCarole Forbes| Drop in | | 26 MARCH – 09 APRIL – EASTER VACATION | (The references for the authors shown in the programme are listed at the end of this handbook) The Recommended Textbook: Bob de Wit Ron Meyer, Strategy, Process Content Context an International Perspective, Cengage Learning, 4th Ed. Journals Harvard Business Review Academy of Management Journal Academy of Management Review Long Range Planning Strategic Management Journal Recommended Reading Origins and Nature of Strategy Porter, M. E. (1996) ‘What is strategy? ‘, Harvard Business Review, November/December 61-78. Whittington, R. (2004) ‘Strategy after modernism: recovering practice’, European Management Review, 1 62-68. Clegg, S. , Carter, C. and Kornberger, M. (2004) †Get up, I feel like being a strategy machine†, European Management Review, 1 (1), 21. Andrews, K. (1998) The concept of corporate strategy. In Strategy: Process, Content, Context (Eds, de Wit, B. and Meyer, R. ) Thomson Learning, London, pp. 86-93. Evered, R. (1983) ‘So what is strategy? ‘, Long Range Planning, 16 (3), 57. Cornelissen, J. A. (1977) ‘Corporate Strategy in the Eighties’, Long Range Planning, 10 Oct. , 2. Campbell, A. and Alexander, M. (1997) ‘What’s wrong with strategy? ‘, Harvard Business Review, November-December 39-52. Chaffee, E. E. (1985) ‘Three models of strategy’, Academy of Management Review, 10 (1), 89-98. Hambrick, D. C. and Fredrickson, J. W. (2001) ‘Are you sure you have a strategy? ‘, The Academy of Management Executive, 15 (4), 48-59. Prahalad, C. K. and Hamel, G. (1994) ‘Strategy as a field of study: why search for a new paradigm’, Strategic Management Journal, 15 5-16. Huff, A. S. (2001) ‘The continuing relevance of strategy’, Human Relations, 54 (1), 123-130. Barry, D. and Elmes, M. (1997) ‘Strategy retold: towards a narrative view of strategic discourse’, Academy of Management Review, 22 (2), 429-452. Theory of the firm and entrepreneurship theory Seth, A. and Thomas, H. (1994) ‘Theories of the firm: Implications for strategy research’, The Journal of Management Studies, 31 (2), 165-193. Spender, J. C. (1996) ‘Organizational knowledge, learning and memory: three concepts in search of theory ‘, Journal of Organizational Change, 9 (1), 63-78. Grant, R. M. (1996) ‘Toward a knowledge-based theory of the firm’, Strategic Management Journal, 17 (Winter Special Issue), 109-131. Spender, J. C. and Grant, R. M. (1996) ‘Knowledge and the firm: Overview’, Strategic Management Journal, 17 5. Lawrence, T. B. (1999) ‘Institutional strategy’, Journal of Management, 25 (2), 161-188. Tsoukas, H. (1996) ‘The firm as a distributed knowledge system: a constructionist approach’, Strategic Management Journal, 17 (Winter Special Issue), 11-23. Hodgkinson, G. P. and Clarke, I. 2007) ‘Conceptual note: Exploring the cognitive significance of organizational strategizing: A dual-process framework and research agenda’, Human Relations, 60 (1), 243-255. Denis, J. -L. , Langley, A. and Rouleau, L. (2007) ‘Strategizing in pluralistic contexts: Rethinking theoretical frames’, Human Relations, 60 (1), 179-215. Strategy Formation Mintzberg, H. and McHugh, A. (1985) ‘Strat egy formation in an adhocracy’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 30 (2), 160-197. Grant, R. M. (2003) ‘Strategic planning in a turbulent environment: evidence from the oil majors’, Strategic Management Journal, 24 491-517. Hart, S. L. nd Banbury, C. (1994) ‘How strategy-making processes can make a difference’, Strategic Management Journal, 15 (4), 251-269. Mintzberg, H. (1990a) ‘The design school: reconsidering the basic premises of strategic management’, Strategic Management Journal, 11 (3), 171-195. Prahalad, C. K. and Hamel, G. (1994) ‘Strategy as a field of study: why search for a new paradigm’, Strategic Management Journal, 15 5-16. Mintzberg, H. (1994) ‘The fall and rise of strategic planning’, Harvard Business Review, 72 (1), 107. Ansoff, I. H. (1965) Corporate strategy, revised edition, McGraw-Hill, New York Ansoff, I. H. (1991) ‘Critique of Henry Mintzberg’s ‘the design school: Reconsidering the basic premises of strategic management†, Strategic Management Journal, 12 (6), 449-461. Bowman, C. , Ward, K. and Kakabadse, A. (2002) ‘Congruent, divergent and incoherent corporate level strategies’, European Management Journal, 20 Dec, 671-679. Mintzberg, H. and Waters, J. A. (1985) ‘Of strategies, deliberate and emergent’, Strategic Management Journal, 6 257-272. Mintzberg, H. (1990b) Strategy formation schools of thought. In Perspectives on strategic management (Ed, Fredrickson, J. W. JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 188-209. Mintzberg, H. (1987) ‘Crafting strategy’, Harvard Business Review, 65 (1), 66-75. Mintzberg, H. and Lampel, J. (1999) ‘Reflecting on the strategy process’, Sloan Management Review, 40 (3), 21-30. Hodgkinson, G. P. and Clarke, I. (2007) ‘Conceptual note: Exploring the cognitive significance of organizat ional strategizing: A dual-process framework and research agenda’, Human Relations, 60 (1), 243-255. Resource Based View Barney, J. B. (1991) ‘Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage’, Journal of Management, 17 (1), 99-120. Mahoney, J. T. (2001) ‘A resource-based theory of sustainable rents’, Journal of Management, 27 (6), 651-660. Wernerfelt, B. (1984) ‘A resource-based view of the firm’, Strategic Management Journal, 5 171-180. Teece, D. J. , Pisano, G. and Shuen, A. (1997) ‘Dynamic capabilities and strategic management’, Strategic Management Journal, 18 (7), 509-533. Campbell-Hunt, C. (2000) ‘What have we learned about generic competitive strategy? A meta-analysis’, Strategic Management Journal, 21 (2), 127-154. Competences and Capabilities Teece, D. J. , Pisano, G. and Shuen, A. 1997) ‘Dynamic capabilities and strategic management’, Strategic Management Journal, 18 (7), 509-533. Eisenhardt, K. M. and Martin, J. A. (2000) ‘Dynamic capabilities: what are they? ‘, Strategic Management Journal, 21 (10-11), 1105-1121. Knowledge Tsoukas, H. and Vladimirou, E. (2001) ‘What is organizational knowledge? ‘, Journal of Man agement Studies, 38 (7), 973-993. Wenger, E. (2004) ‘Knowledge management as a doughnut: shaping you knowledge strategy through communities of practice’, Ivey Business Journal, January/February 1-8. Nonaka, I. (1994) A Dynamic Theory of Organizational Knowledge Creation. Organisation Science, 5 (1), 14 – 37. Szulanski, G. (1996). Exploring Internal Stickiness: Impediments to the Transfer of Best Practice Within the Firm. Strategic Management Journal, 17 (Winter Special Issue), 27-43. Strategic Thinking Hodgkinson, G. P. and Clarke, I. (2007) ‘Conceptual note: Exploring the cognitive significance of organizational strategizing: A dual-process framework and research agenda’, Human Relations, 60 (1), 243-255. Eisenhardt, K. M. and Zbaracki, M. J. (1992) ‘Strategic decision making’, Strategic Management Journal, 13 (Special Issue), 17-37. Leadership Cicero, L. Pierro, A. and van Knippenberg, D. , (2010) ‘Leadership and uncertainty: how role ambiguity affects the relationship between leader group prototypicality and leadership effectiveness’, British Journal of Management, 21 (2), 411-421. Cyert, R. M. (1990) ‘Defining Leadership and Explicating the Process’, Non-Profit Management and Leadership, 1 (1), 29-38. Hakimi, N. , van Knippenberg, D. , and Giessner, S. (2010) ‘Leader Empowering Behaviour: The Leader’s Perspective’, British Journal of Management, 21 (3), 701-716. The International Context and Drivers of Globalisation and FDI Maguire, S. nd Hardy, C. (2006) ‘The Emergence of New Global Institutions: A Discursive Perspective’, Organization Studies, 27 (1), 7. Geppert, M. and Matten, D. (2006) ‘Institutional Influences on Manufacturing Organization in Multinational Corporations: The ‘Cherrypicking’ Approach’, Organization Studies, 27 (4), 491. Vaara, E. , Tienari, J. and Laurila, J. (2005) ‘Pulp and paper fiction: on the discursive legitimisation of global industrial restructuring’, Organization Studies. Douglas, S. P. and Wind, Y. (1987) ‘The myth of globalization’, Columbia Journal of World Business, 22 (4), 19-29. Tong, T. W. , Alessandri, T. M. , Reuer, J. J. and Chintakananda, A. (2008) ‘How much does country matter? an analysis of firms’ growth options’, Journal of International Business Studies, 39 387-405. Theodosiou, M. and Leonidou, L. C. (2003) ‘Standardization versus adaptation of international marketing strategy: an integrative assessment of the empirical research’, International Business Review, 12 141–171. Svensson, G. (2001) ‘†Glocalization† of business activities: a â€Å"glocal strategy† approach’, Management Decision, 39 (1), 6-18. Schlie, E. and Yip, G. 2000) ‘Regional follows global: strategy mixes in the world automotive industry’, European Management Journal, 18 (4), 343–354. Levitt, T. (1983) ‘The globalization of markets’, Harvard Business Review, 61 (3), 92–102. Leknes, H. M. and Carr, C. (2004) ‘Globalisation, international configurations and strategic i mplications: the case of retailing’, Long Range Planning, 37 29-49. Strategic Alliances Gulati, R. (1998) ‘Alliances and networks’, Strategic Management Journal, 19 293-317. Gulati, R. , Nohria, N. and Zaheer, A. (2000) ‘Strategic networks’, Strategic Management Journal, 21 (3), 203-215. Koza, M. P. and Lewin, A. Y. (1998) ‘The co-evolution of strategic alliances’, Organization Science, 9 (3), 255-264. Sydow, J. (2006) ‘Managing to Collaborate: The Theory and Practice of Collaborative Advantage’, Organization Studies, 27 (4), 605. Steven White, S. S. -Y. L. (2005) ‘Distinguishing costs of cooperation and control in alliances’, Strategic Management Journal, 26 (10), 913-932. Kanter, R. M. (1994) ‘Collaborative Advantage: The Art of Alliances’, Harvard Business Review, 72 (4), 96-108. Structure of industries and markets and the general government and business context Miller, D. and Friesen, P. H. (1983) ‘Strategy-making and environment: The third link’, Strategic Management Journal, 4 (3), 221-235. Selsky, J. W. , Goes, J. and Baburoglu, O. N. (2007) ‘Contrasting Perspectives of Strategy Making: Applications in ‘Hyper’ Environments’, Organization Studies, 28 (1), 71-94. Bourgeois, L. J. (1980) ‘Strategy and environment: a conceptual integration’, Academy of Management Review, 5 (1), 25-39. Strategy as practice, ANT, CoP Hendry, J. (2000) ‘Strategic decision-making, discourse, and strategy as social practice’, Journal of Management Studies, 37 (7), 955–977. Moisander, J. and Stenfos, S. 2009) ‘Exploring the edges of theory-practice gap: epistemic cultures in strategy-tool development and use’, Organization, 16 (2), 227-247. Hutzschenreuter, T. and Kleindienst, I. (2006) ‘Strategy-process research: what we have learned and what is still to be explored’, Journal of Management 32 (5), 673-720. Hendry, J. (2000) ‘Strategic decision-making, discourse, and strategy as social practice’, Journal of Management Studies, 37 (7), 955–977. Organisational Purpose and Stakeholders Augier, M. and March, j. g. (2001) ‘Conflict of interest in theories of the organization: Herbert A. Simon and Oliver E. Williamson’, Journal of Management and Governance, 5 (3/4), 223-230. Williamson, O. E. and Haas, W. A. (1999 ) ‘Strategy research: Governance and competence perspectives’, Strategic Management Journal, 20 (12), 1087-1108. Huff, A. S. (2000) ‘Changes in organizational knowledge production’, Academy of Management Review, 25 (2), 288-293. Rocha, H. O. and Ghoshal, S. (2006) ‘Beyond self-interest revisited’, Journal of Management Studies, 43 (3), 585-61. MMUBS’ referencing standard Examples of references for different source materials using MMUBS’ referencing standard (a style of the Harvard system of referencing) A document is available (electronically in your Moodle areas) providing instruction on applying the MMUBS Harvard referencing standard to your work – this includes detailed instruction on how to cite from and reference different sources. Book Huczynski, A. A. and Buchanan, D. A. (2007) Organizational behaviour: An introductory text. 6th ed. , Harlow: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Book chapter Gordon, R. , Druckman, D. , Rozelle, R. and Baxter, J. (2006) ‘Non-verbal behaviour as communication: Approaches, issues and research. ’ In: O. Hargie. (Ed. ) The handbook of communication skills. London: Routledge, pp. 73-119. Journal article Hass, M. (2006) ‘Knowledge Gathering, Team Capabilities, and Project Performance in Challenging Work Environments. ’ Management science, Vol. 52, no. 8, pp. 1170-1184. Internet source – author Kennedy, J. (2008) Contract Killer. Directory of Social Change [Online] [Accessed on 6th August 2008] http://www. dsc. org. uk/NewsandInformation/News/Contractshindercharities Internet source – organisation Business in the Community. (2008) Skills boost for North West companies. [Online] [Accessed on 5th August 2008] http://www. bitc. org. k/news_media/skills_boost_for. html Newspaper article – paper copy Milmo, D. (2008) ‘Ryanair launches price war as sales slump. ’ The Guardian. 8th August. p25. Newspaper article – Internet copy Wray, R. (2008) ‘Sony buys Bertelsmann out of joint music business. ’ The Guardian. [Online] 6th August. [Accessed on 11th August 2008] http://www. guardi an. co. uk/business/2008/aug/06/musicindustry. sony Government command paper Department of Trade and Industry. (2005) Our energy future: Creating a low carbon economy. Cmnd. 5761, London: TSO. Act of Parliament Companies Act 2006. (c. 46) London: HMSO. Dissertation Paucar-Caceres, A. (2006) Business culture and management science methodologies in England and France. Ph. D. Manchester Metropolitan University. introductory text. Harlow: Financial Times Prentice Hall. (For instruction on citing secondary sources, see the referencing standard document for MMUBS) Report ECOTEC. (2003) Guidance on Mapping Social Enterprise: Final Report to the DTI Social Enterprise Unit. London: ECOTEC Research and Consulting Ltd. (C2453). (When referencing a report, if there is no report code or number on the report that you have used, leave this field blank. ) How to cite Corprate Global Strategy, Papers

Persuasive Astrology free essay sample

The study of astrology may seem like a world full of mysticism and uncertainty. It is natural to question how someones personality traits can be determined by planetary alignments; after all it does seem far-fetched. Astrology and the zodiac are a lot more complex than the average person realizes. Until you take the time to fully research and understand astrology, its impossible to get the most accurate zodiac profile. In ancient times, astrology was closely linked to fields such as astronomy, philosophy and medicine. Astrology is a broad topic with deep roots in history that must be broken down in order to fully understand it. The average person is only aware of their sun sign; this is only the beginning of ones zodiac profile. Each planet in our solar system is representative of a certain aspect of life. In order to get the most precise reading of your zodiac, you have to know which sign was affecting each planet on the date and time you were born. We will write a custom essay sample on Persuasive Astrology or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This can become as specific as to what degree the planet is influenced by its respective sign. If you werent aware of how in epth a study astrology is, I encourage you to find out. Daily and even monthly horoscopes simply arent specific enough. No two peoples zodiac profile is the same (unless you were born on the same day, time and at the same place), so in essence no two peoples horoscope can be the same. Magazines and websites grouping whole zodiac signs into one small group and giving a general horoscope is why there is a drastic decrease in accuracy. You cant blame people for becoming skeptics because the horoscopes they have been exposed to arent the roduct of real astrology. There are a number of different ways to discover your true zodiac, the easiest of these being through the internet. By simply typing in zodiac calculator, numerous websites will pop up. You want to choose one that requires your date, time and place of birth. The results you get should be overwhelming, after all theres a lot that goes into your zodiac. Most websites provide you with a diagram that shows the symbols for each planet and sign as well as how they correspond with each other.

Useful Japanese Adverbs

Useful Japanese Adverbs alwaysitsumo㠁„㠁 ¤Ã£â€šâ€š usuallytaitei㠁Ÿã â€žÃ£  ¦Ã£ â€ž oftenyokuよ㠁  sometimestokidoki時々 seldommettani ( negative verb)ã‚ Ã£  £Ã£ Å¸Ã£  « never, by no meanszenzenå… ¨Ã§â€ž ¶ quite, entirelymattaku㠁 ¾Ã£  £Ã£ Å¸Ã£   certainly, by all meanskanarazuÃ¥ ¿â€¦Ã£ Å¡ absolutelyzettainiç µ ¶Ã¥ ¯ ¾Ã£  « perhaps, probablytabunÃ¥ ¤Å¡Ã¥Ë†â€  indeed, reallyhontouniæÅ" ¬Ã¥ ½â€œÃ£  « completelysukkari㠁™ã  £Ã£ â€¹Ã£â€šÅ  surely, certainlykitto㠁 Ã£  £Ã£  ¨ especiallytokuniç‰ ¹Ã£  « extremely, verytotemo㠁 ¨Ã£  ¦Ã£â€šâ€š fairly, considerablykanari㠁‹ã  ªÃ£â€šÅ  slightly, a bit​chotto㠁 ¡Ã£â€šâ€¡Ã£  £Ã£  ¨ about, approximatelyyakuç ´â€ž foreveritsumademo㠁„㠁 ¤Ã£  ¾Ã£  §Ã£â€šâ€š all the time, by farzutto㠁šã  £Ã£  ¨ once, beforekatsute㠁‹ã  ¤Ã£  ¦ not yet, stillmada㠁 ¾Ã£    soonsugu㠁™ã   for a whileshibaraku㠁â€"㠁 °Ã£â€šâ€°Ã£   for the time beingichiou㠁„㠁 ¡Ã£ Å Ã£ â€  anyway, at any ratetonikaku㠁 ¨Ã£  «Ã£ â€¹Ã£   now, well, incidentallytokorode㠁 ¨Ã£ â€œÃ£â€š Ã£  § at first​mazu㠁 ¾Ã£ Å¡ next, thentsuginiæ ¬ ¡Ã£  « finallysaigoniæÅ"ی ¾Å'㠁 « again, alsomata㠁 ¾Ã£ Å¸ suddenlykyuuniæ€ ¥Ã£  « by chanceguuzenniÃ¥  ¶Ã§â€ž ¶Ã£  « just, preciselychoudo㠁 ¡Ã£â€šâ€¡Ã£ â€ Ã£  © alreadymouも㠁† moremottoも㠁 £Ã£  ¨ most​mottomoæÅ"€ã‚‚ fasthayakuæâ€" ©Ã£   slowlyyukkuriゆ㠁 £Ã£  Ã£â€šÅ  increasinglymasumasu㠁 ¾Ã£ â„¢Ã£  ¾Ã£ â„¢ graduallydandan㠁  Ã£â€šâ€œÃ£   Ã£â€šâ€œ at lastyattoや㠁 £Ã£  ¨ togetherisshoniä ¸â‚¬Ã§ ·â€™Ã£  « separatelybetsubetsuniåˆ ¥Ã£  « insteadkawariniä » £Ã£â€š Ã£â€šÅ Ã£  « quietlyjitto㠁˜ã  £Ã£  ¨ secretlysotto㠁 Ã£  £Ã£  ¨ on purposewazatoã‚ Ã£ â€"㠁 ¨ despite ones effortssekkaku㠁›ã  £Ã£ â€¹Ã£   if possiblenarubeku㠁 ªÃ£â€šâ€¹Ã£  ¹Ã£  

Different from, Different to, Different than

Different from, Different to, Different than Different from, Different to, Different than Different from, Different to, Different than By Maeve Maddox We all have our pet grammar peeves, usages that, when we hear them, affect us like the sound of a fingernail against a chalkboard. Ill bet Im not the only one who shudders to hear sentences like these: A boxer is different than a Doberman. This car is different to that one. Yet, are these usages really incorrect? According to the entry for different from, different to, different than at Bartleby.com, These three have been usage items for many years. All are Standard and have long been so (different to is limited to British English, however), but only different from seems never to meet objections. Elements of Style weighs in against different than: Here logic supports established usage: one thing differs from another, hence, different from. Or, other than, unlike. From H.W. Fowler comes this pronouncement: That different can only be followed by from and not by to is a superstition. He points out that writers of all ages have used different to. He does not mention the use of different than. It would seem, then, that any of the three is acceptable. Nevertheless, the concluding advice at Bartleby.com agrees with my own: for Formal and Oratorical levels: stick with different from. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Creative Writing 10150 Synonyms for â€Å"Idea†25 Idioms About Bread and Dessert

The Cape Wind Project Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Cape Wind Project - Term Paper Example The groups supporting the project include major national and international organizations such as Greenpeace, Union of Concerned Scientists, World Wildlife Fund, and the Natural Resources Defense Council. Â  The supporters of the project believe that it has immense potential of generating energy without the use of fossil fuels and promises an environmentally friendly approach, besides the fact that it could generate huge employment opportunities in the surrounding areas. The opponents, however, disagree arguing that it would cause damage to the aesthetic and historical sites thereby deteriorating and disturbing the natural environment. Â  Although the technical aspects that posed potential obstacles to the offshore energy development project are largely resolved, the concerns over the social, political, environmental and economic aspects are still a matter of grave concern and continue to be debated across the country which tends to avert investment in such a phenomenal project. According to a survey conducted in 2005, the opponents of the project comprised of 42.4%, of Cape Cod residents, 24.6% of those who supported it and 33% who were still undecided (Firestone, Kempton, 2007). Some of the major social, economic and political issues concerning Cape Wind are discussed hereunder. Â  Social: The tourism industry in the Cape Cod, Nantucket, and Martha’s Vineyard regions could flourish and prosper immensely as a resultant impact of the Cape Wind project. The developers intend to promote recreational tourism which is likely to benefit the boaters and fishermen in the nearby areas. It is an environmentally friendly approach towards generating energy which is more beneficial than any other alternative sources of energy development including hydropower or nuclear power (Cape Wind, 2008). Â  

Questions on Psychology of Aging Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Questions on Psychology of Aging - Essay Example The SOC theory "involves an orchestration of selection, optimization, and compensation." When an individual decides on the path or goal he wants to achieve, this process is called selection. "During ontogeny, there are several additional sources for selection: individuals and societies sample from a population of possibilities or opportunities (.), limited individual capacity in time and resources, incompatibility of goals and outcomes, and age-related changes. The activities he will do to hit the target is optimization. If the individual can no longer keep his goal he resorts in goal-relevant means to maintain success - this is compensation. An aging journalist who used to go on field for a daily beat applies the theory of SOC in continuously writing news stories (selection), he ensures that he meets with the right sources to beat his deadline and be able to deliver a good output (optimization), but old age hinders him from doing field work everyday, hence, he opted to have a bi-weekly column in a broadsheet to maintain his keenness and visibility in the world of news (compensation). 2. Schaie (1994) asked whether there are differences in life-course patterns for various intellectual abilities with age (i.e., whether different abilities show different trajectories with age). Briefly discuss the answer to this question based on his results (6 points). Also note when reliable decrements in intellectual ability are detectible (2 points) and what role cohort effects might play (2 points). Answer: In his study, K. Warner Schaie (1994), have shown that "there is no uniform pattern of age-related changes across all intellectual abilities, and that studies of an overall index of intellectual ability () do not suffice to monitor age changes and age differences in intellectual functioning for either individuals or groups." The uniqueness of human mind, as well as, cohort, and gender are among the factors that makes the non-uniform pattern of age-related changes in the IQ. The age of 60 is the usual retirement age in most countries. Schaie's study shows "decrements in most psychometric abilities" mostly occur at the age of 60 onwards. Regardless of the individual pathology or genetic factors, "reliable average decrement can be found for all psychometric abilities by age 74. Cohort, generation, or peers also affect an individual's intellectual ability. Although "() patterns of socialization unique to a given sex role is specific historical period may be a major determinant of the pattern of change in abilities." 3. Imagine that you are asked by congress to develop a nation-wide training program that would enhance older adults' cognitive functioning. Based on the results from the Schaie and Willis (1986) study, where they trained reasoning and spatial ability in older adults, would you tell congress that a training program would work (5 points) Why or why not (5 points) Answer: I would be very glad to recommend to the Congress a training program to enhance adults' cognitive functioning. Based on Schaie and Willis (1986) study, "inductive reasoning training help improve everyday problem solving ability, particularly for older adults in their late 70s or early 80s. In the present time where a lot of concerns arise, that even a primary pupil encounter various perplexing matters (classroom and family politics), a cognitive training would be of help. It will boost the future, as well as the present generation's

Cocaine Pharmacology and Effects on the Brain

Cocaine Pharmacology and Effects on the Brain Cocaine is a highly addictive substance abused worldwide. Its primary mechanism of action involves blockage of dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin transporters in specific brain regions, mainly the dopamine reuptake system located on mesolimbic neurons. Cocaine increases the dopaminergic neurotransmission and triggers adaptive changes in several neuronal circuits underlying reinforcement, reward, sensitisation and the high addictive potential of cocaine. However, the long-lasting behavioural effects associate with cocaine addiction show there is complex neurotransmitters interaction within the reward circuit. Excitatory amino acid and inhibitory GABA transmitters also play a part in these changes. Glutamatergic systems regulate dopamine function, while GABAergic modulate the release of basal dopamine and glutamate. Understanding of the molecular and cellular mechanisms that lead to cocaine addiction has given new treatment methods in the pharmacological field to develop better med icine. Especially, useful monoamine agonists treatment may be successfully in controlling behaviour and lead to long term moderation of drug taking. However, more studies are needed in order to identify safe and efficacious pharmacotherapy. Introduction Cocaine, an alkaloid derived from the leaves of Erythroxylon coca is a psychostimulant drug linked to human addiction (Dackis et al., 2001). Cocaine acts as a local anaesthetic with sympathomimetic and vasoconstrictor properties (White and Lambe, 2003). In addition, cocaine is a potent uptake blocker for dopamine (DA), norepinephrine and serotonin (Carrera et al., 2004). As shown in figure one, the chemical structure of cocaine molecule contains two rings, the six-carbon phenyl ring shown on the right and the unusual nitrogen (N)-containing ring shown on the left, both necessary for its biological activity (Meyer and Quenzer, 2005). Cocaine acts by blocking the dopamine transporter within the mesocorticolimbic reward system. Blockade of the transporter increases the level of dopamine in this region of the brain. Increased dopamine level is responsible for the euphoric effect of cocaine (Butterner et al., 2003). However, the long lasting effects of behavioural characteristics of cocaine addiction, such as sensitisation and the vulnerability to the reinstatement of drug seeking years after the acute rewarding effects of the drug have disappeared, shows that there must be complex interactions between additional neurotransmitter systems (Kalivas, 2004). In contrast to dopaminergic system, excitatory amino acid and inhibitory GABA transmitters also play a role in these changes. Glutamatergic systems regulate dopamine function, while GABAergic modulate the release of basal dopamine and glutamate (Baler and Volkow, 2006). Additionally, cocaine can also interact with several receptors and ion channels, including nicotin ic acetylcholine, and opioid receptors coupled to voltage-gated Ca2+ and K+ channels (Kobayashi et al., 2007), resulting in prolonged elevation of extracellular dopamine. The potential abuse of cocaine is mainly based on the rapid development of tolerance to the euphoric effects (Butter et al., 2003). Cocaine addiction is an uncontrollable and continually relapsing drug taking disorder (Torregrossa and Kalivas, 2008). The behavioural manifestation of addiction is mediated by adaptations that chronic administration of drug abuse elicits at the level of individual neurons in the CNS. These adaptations alter the functional properties of neurons, which in turn change the properties of the functioning of neural circuits in the brain in which these neurons are involved (Nestler, 1997). The probability that one will become addicted to cocaine depends on the method, the frequency and the duration of ones cocaine intake (Carrea et al., 2004). Historical aspect of cocaine use The use of cocaine for personal satisfaction dated back over thousands of years ago, when Erythroxylon coca, the plant from which cocaine is extracted was used by indigenous people from Andes and South America for religious, mystical, social, and medical purposes (Dackis et al., 2001). The coca leaf was chewed by these communities because of its euphoric effects and its ability to reduce fatigue and hunger and to enable sustained periods of heavy labour (White and Lambe, 2003). This leaf was introduced in Europe in 1492 by the Spaniards, when they conquered South America and discovered that this leaf would be useful for performing hard labour (Julien et al., 2008). Eventually, the Spaniards started using the coca leaf as a method of payment for the native worker in gold and silver mine, who would take the leaf to reduce appetite and increase physical stamina. Cocaine alkaloid was first isolated by a German chemist Friedrich Gaedche in 1855 (Julien, 2008). The ability of cocaine in reducing fatigue and hunger were recognised by Sigmund Freud who used cocaine himself. Freud and others also recognised the ability of cocaine to cure opioid addiction. As a result, Freud prescribed cocaine to his patients who were addicted to morphine (Boghdadi and Henning, 1997). Unfortunately, many of these patients became addicted to cocaine themselves (Grilly, 1998). Morphine, which is similar to cocaine in reducing hunger, was extracted from opium in the early 1800s by Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Sertà ¼rner. But its use spread in 1853 when the hypodermic needle was developed (Grilly, 1998). Morphine was used as a pain reliever and as a cure for opium and alcohol addiction. Its extensive use during the American Civil war resulted with people suffering from the soldiers disease (addiction), (Julien et al, 2008). Forms of cocaine The use of crack cocaine, or crack, was first reported in 1980 in Europe and the US as a new drug with rapid stimulating effects. Crack cocaine is a by-product of cocaine, C17H21NO4 (figure 1). However, crack is formed through different processes. First, the coca leaves are transformed into a product known as basic cocaine paste. The paste is then turned into either crack cocaine through chemical treatment with sodium bicarbonate, or into a less potent water soluble salt, cocaine hydrochloride when it is refined with either acetone or sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. The powdered hydrochloride salt can be snorted, and because it is water soluble, it can be injected intravenously (Boghdadi et al., 1997). However, in the hydrochloride form, cocaine decomposes when it is heated and is destroyed to temperature, making it unsuitable for use by inhalation. In contrast, crack cocaine is converted to a stable vapour by heating it (Julien et al., 2008), making it more potent than the concentrated form. The paste and crack cocaine forms can be smoked either on their own or together with tobacco or cannabis-marijuana and sometime mixed with heroin and sold on the street (Goldstein et al., 2009). Cocaine hydrochloride compared to crack cocaine, is less potent and it is used as a local anaesthetic. Its use as anaesthetic first came about in 1884, after Niemann described its anaesthetic properties such as bitter taste and the resultant unusual numbness when applied to the tongue (Goldstein et al., 2009). By the late 1800s, when morphine was already used as a pain reliever, the use of cocaine for its analgesic properties which includes nerve blocking anaesthesia, epidural, and spinal anaesthesia has began to spread (Goldstein et al., 2009). Both cocaine hydrochloride and morphine are still used medically today as anaesthetic, despite their addictive properties. Cocaine hydrochloride is used as a vasoconstricting anaesthetic agent in surgery for ears, nose, and throat (White et al., 2003), while morphine is used as anaesthetic to relieve severe pain. Morphine acts through mu, kappa, and delta opioid receptor to block pain messages to the central and peripheral nervous system (Jul ien et al., 2008), However, morphine produces euphoria by interacting mainly with the mu opioid receptor (rosin et al., 2000). Aim: The aim of this project is to view the complex interaction between cocaine and cocaine receptors and the mechanisms of action of cocaine. Special emphasis will be placed on cocaine tolerance and addiction. To begin with, an overview will be provided on the pharmacokinetics of cocaine by discussing how it is absorbed, distributed, metabolised and excreted. Then, a discussion on how cocaine-induced changes in the peripheral and central nervous system contribute to the euphoric effect and addiction. Finally, an overview of how cocaine dependency could be treated. Pharmacokinetics of cocaine The effect of cocaine on the body depends heavily on the rate of accumulation and the concentration of cocaine at its site of action (the brain) and the duration of contact at these sites (Grilly, 1998). The pharmacokinetics of cocaine refers to its movement in the body with respect to its absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion from the body and this is dependent on multiple factor such as, route of administration, genetics, and consumption of cocaine (Goldstein et al., 2009). Route of Administration/ Absorption As illustrated in figure two, cocaine is rapidly absorbed from the mucous membranes, the stomach and the lungs. Therefore, cocaine can be snorted, smoked, taken orally, or injected intravenously (Julien et al., 2008). However, the onset and duration of cocaine depends on the method of intake (Grilly, 2006). Cocaine hydrochloride poorly crosses the mucosal membranes when snorted, due to its vasoconstriction properties, thereby constricting blood vessels and limiting its own absorption. Because of the slow absorption of cocaine, its euphoric effect is prolonged when administered intranasally (Boghdadi et al., 1997). Cocaine can be also smoked in the form of crack. Because of its rapid absorption in the pulmonary vascular bed, crack produces an intense high in seconds, peaks at 5 minutes and persists for about 30 minutes. Intravenous injection of cocaine hydrochloride bypasses all the barriers to absorption, placing the total dose of drug immediately into the bloodstream. It produces euphoria in 30-45 seconds (Julien et al., 2008). Distribution After administration, cocaine rapidly penetrates the brain. Initial brain concentrations far exceed the concentration in plasma (Julien et al, 2008). After it penetrates the brain, cocaine is rapidly redistributed to other tissues such as the spleen, kidney, and lungs. Cocaine also binds to plasma protein, albumin and also to ÃŽÂ ±1-acid glycoprotein (Boghdadi et al., 1997). Metabolism Drugs taken orally initially pass through the liver (Figure 2), where they may be metabolised before entering the blood. Cocaine is metabolised primarily into ecgonine methyl ester and benzoylecgonine (Figure 3), the main urinary metabolite of cocaine and can be detected in urine for about 48 hours and up to 2 weeks in chronic users (Butttner et al., 2003). Cocaine is catalysed to ecgonine methyl ester by serum and liver cholinesterases, while benzoylecgonine is hydrolysed non-enzymaticaly (Carrera et al., 2004). Benzoylecgonine have vasoconstrictive properties, however it does not appear to cross the blood-brain barrier readily (Goldstein et al., 2009.). In addition, cocaine is demethylated to formed norcocaine (Figure 3) (Carrera et al., 2004), the only metabolite of cocaine that crosses the blood-brain barrier (Flowler et al., 2001). In the presence of ethanol, cocaine is metabolized to cocaethylene (Buttner et al, 2003). Cocaethylene is as active as cocaine in blocking the presynaptic dopamine reuptake transporter, thereby potentiating the euphoric effect of cocaine, increasing the risk of dual dependency and the severity of withdrawal with chronic patterns of use. This metabolite is more toxic than cocaine and aggravates cocaines toxicity. The half-life of cocaethylene is about 150 minutes, outlasting cocaine in the body (Julien et al., 2008). Even though cocaines plasma half-life is about 50 minutes, several metabolites can be detected by way of urinalysis for up to 2 to 5 days after cocaine overdose (Grilly, 2006). Mechanism of actions of cocaine Cocaines euphoric and reinforcing properties are the result of the obstruction of dopamine transporter (Butterner et al., 2003), thus, increasing dopamine level within the mesolimbic dopamine pathways. The mesolimbic dopamine pathways, shown in figure4, are composed of ventral tegmental area (VTA), the prefrontal cortex (PFC), Hipocampus, amygdale, and the nucleus accumbens (NAc) (Cornish and Kalivas, 2001) (figure 5). The nucleus accumbens (NAc) which consists of two sub-regions, the core and the shell, is believed to be the site for both the primary reinforcing properties of drugs of abuse and conditioned control over drug seeking (Kalivas, 2004). Normally, Dopamine is released into the synapse from an axon terminal in response to a pleasurable signal (Dackis and OBrien, 2001). Once this neurotransmitter is released, it diffuses across the synaptic cleft to bind to their respective receptors, D1 and D2 receptors (Howell* and Kimmel, 2008), which are linked to the cAMP second messengers system via membrane-bound G-proteins. D1family receptors (D1 and D5) are coupled to a stimulatory G-protein (Gs), which when activated increases the production of adenylate cyclase and cAMP and stimulation of the D2 family receptors (D2, D3, and D4) leads to the inhibition of adenylate cyclase through activation of an inhibitory G-protein (Gi/Go) (Cunningham and Kelley, 1993). Dopamine is taking back into the presynaptic neurons through the dopamine transporter, as a result shutting off the signal between neurons by preventing new dopamine to be formed (Howell* and Kimmel, 2008). Cocaine, on the other hand, blocks the dopamine transporter (figure 5), preventing the reuptake of dopamine into the presynaptic neurons of the VTA. Blockade of the transporter augment dopamine level in the synaptic clefts, producing continuous stimulation of dopamine receptors (Anderson and Pierce, 2005). Increasing dopamine concentration in the nucleus accumbens is responsible for the euphoric and reinforcing effects of cocaine. Behavioural sensitisation Repeated cocaine treatment increases dopamine levels in the synaptic cleft, which could lead to further stimulation of the dopamine receptors, causing more intense but shorter behavioural responses (Anderson and Pierce, 2005). This progressive change in behavioural response following repeated cocaine administration is known as behavioural sensitisation or reverse tolerance. The enduring neuronal adaptation in the reward circuit that occur after repeated cocaine administration is believed to be associated with motive and reward (Morgan and Roberts, 2004). The neuroadaptations that result in behavioural sensitization is characterised by two processes, known as initiation and expression (Anderson and Pierce, 2005). Initiation, which takes place in the VTA, is referred to as temporary cellular and molecular changes, such as alteration in various genes, second messenger cascades and receptors densities, which occur in response to psychostimulant administration, while expression is the lon g-lasting neuronal changes that start from the VTA and progress to the nucleus accumbens and striatum to increase behavioural response (Pierce and Kalivas, 1997). It has been reported that repeated cocaine treatment for two weeks increases the sensitivity of dopamine D1 receptors in the olfactory tubercle, nucleus accumbens, ventral pallidum, and substantia nigra and subsensitivity of D2 receptor (Unterwald et al., 1996). Activation of D1 receptors stimulates adenylyl cyclase activity via activation of Gs; increasing sensitivity of D1 and also increased adenylate cyclase and cyclic AMP-dependent protein Kinase (PKA) activity in the nucleus accumbens due to continual activation of Gs protein (Cunningham and Kelley, 1993). However, continuous cocaine treatment decreased D1-like receptor density and function, thereby initiated behavioural tolerance (Keys, and Ellison, 1994). Increased release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens is also calcium-dependent and relies upon activation of calcium-dependent proteins, calmodulin and calcium-calmodulin kinase II (CaM-KII (Pierce and Kalivas, 1997). It is generally believed that increased calcium conductant and activation of calcium-dependent protein kinase are involved in the release of neurotransmitters in presynaptic nerve terminals and initiation of gene transcription (Evans and Zamponi, 2006). Therefore, continuous activation of calmodulin and CaM-KII by cocaine in the nucleus accumbens may mediate the release of dopamine or other neurotransmitters such as glutamate and GABA that are associated with expression of behavioural sensitisation (Pierce and Kalivas, 1997). D1 receptors located on GABA and glutamate afferents to the VTA are responsible for the release of these neurotransmitters in the nucleus accumbens when activated. Interaction between these neurotransmitters in the VTA changes the regulation of dopamine cell, which initiate long-term neuroadaptations (Cornish and Kalivas, 2001). Glutamatergic systems Excitatory amino acid such as glutamate acts as the main mediators of excitatory signals in the central nervous system (Baler and Volkow, 2006). Glutamate is known to produce its action through ionotropic (NMDA and non-NMDA) and metabotropic (mGluR) subclasses receptors (Danbolt, 1997). Although cocaine does not have a direct influence on brain glutamate systems, repeated exposure to cocaine results in alterations in glutaminergic transmission in the nucleus accumbens (Schmidt et al., 2005). However, the PFC, which transmits major glutaminergic projections to the nucleus accumbens (figure 4) has been most implicated in the regulation of dopamine released from dopamine cell terminals through NMDA and non-NMDA receptors (Kalivas, 1997). It is believed that stimulation of NMDA receptors through a voltage-dependent calcium channel initiate burst firing model in dopamine cells, as a result increasing accumbal dopamine release which is similar to what occurs in behavioural sensitisation (E vans and Zamponi, 2006). Administration of cocaine increases dopamine release presynaptically, which stimulates dopamine D1 receptors, located on descending glutamatergic afferent terminals from the prefrontal cortex (PFC). The D1 receptor in turn, stimulates the release of glutamate in the prefrontal cortex postsynaptic neuron. The released glutamate activates NMDA receptors on the dopaminergic dendrites in this brain area. This sequence of events is augmented by the fact that repeated cocaine administration desensitises dopamine D2 autoreceptors. Desensitisation of D2 receptor reduces the hyper-polarisation of dopamine cells, thereby allowing a further augmentation of dopamine release, which causes supersensitivity of D1 receptors, hence, increasing NMDA activity (Johnson and North, 1992). Because the neuronal circuits are interconnected (figure 5), a reduction in PFC dopamine transmission will activate the nucleus accumbens dopamine release, leading to expression of behavioural sensitisation. Increased glutamate release from the PFC to nucleus accumbens core is associated with cocaine-induced reinstatement and expression of locomotor sensitisation (Torregrossa and Kalivas, 2008). Both Glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons are also joined in the prefrontal cortex, indicating a possible interaction between glutamate and GABA. Therefore, the PFC GABA transmission may also be involved in the development of behavioural sensitisation (Giorgi et al., 2005). GABA systems It has been reported that cocaine sensitisation is linked with a cocaine-induced increased glutamate and GABA levels in the PFC. This was supported by Jayaram and Steketee (2005), who observed an increase in both glutamate and GABA concentration in the prefrontal cortex of animals withdrawn from repeated daily cocaine after the first week following repeated exposure to cocaine, but increase in these neurotransmitters were not observed after prolonged withdrawal. Furthermore, Jayaram and Steketee reported that the AMPA/KA receptor antagonist, (DNQX) prevent cocaine from increase the concentration of GABA in the prefrontal cortex in cocaine-sensitised animals. Therefore, increasing the response of GABAergic neurons in the PFC is a consequence of enhance glutamate level in prefrontal cortex. Because the AMPA/KA receptor antagonists seem to block cocaine from augmenting GABA levels, it can be concluded that glutamate acts mainly through AMPA/KA receptors to increase GABAergic activity in the prefrontal cortex. However, decrease in GABAÃŽÂ ² receptors function in the PFC is also associated with sensitisation of locomotors. It is believed that a loss in GABAÃŽÂ ² function in the prefrontal cortex would lead to a decrease in inhibitory modulation of excitatory pyramidal output neurons in the PFC (Badran et al., 1997), and therefore, a simultaneous increase in glutamatergic transmission in subcortical regions associated with the expression of behavioural sensitisation (McFarland et al., 2003). Glutamatergic, GABAergic and midbrain dopamine neurons are joined onto dendritic spines of medium spiny neurons that contain GABA, and endogenous opioid peptides. These opioid-containing neurons project directly to the substantia nigra and VTA to synapse on dopamine cells (Yung and Bolam, 2000). Therefore, alteration of endogenous opioid may participate in the development of drug abuse. Opioid systems It has been suggested that dopamine and opioid act together to modulate locomotion, mood and motivated behavioural, therefore, modification of the endogenous opioids participate in the development of drug of abuse. In addition the opioid system could also influence drug craving and relapse by altering stress physiology (Rosin et al. 2000). Apart from dopaminergic system, the endogenous opioid system is also a major player in addiction. Opioid system consists of three G-protein coupled receptors, termed mu (ÃŽÂ ¼), kappa (ÃŽÂ º), and delta (ÃŽÂ ´) opioid receptors. They act through G-protein second messenger systems (Go/Gi) to inhibit adenylate cyclase and cyclic AMP (Contet et al., 2004). Activation of these receptors on presynaptic axon terminals inhibits the Ca2+ influx that underlies release of neurotransmitters (Evans and Zamponi, 2006). At the postsynaptic membrane, their activation hyperpolarises the membranes by enhancing K+ flow out of neurons (Taddese et al., 1995) mu ( µ)-opioid receptor Mu ( µ) opioid receptors mediate positive reinforcement following direct morphine or indirect alcohol, cannabinoids and nicotine activation (Jullien et al, 2008). The positive reinforcing and euphoric effect of morphine involved dopaminergic as well as mu opioid receptors. Morphine activates ÃŽÂ ¼-opioid receptors through inhibitory Go/Gi protein, which decreases the level of adenylate cyclase and the cAMP pathways in the VTA (Contet et al, 2004). Because opioid and GABA containing-neurons also project in the VTA, activation of  µ receptor inhibits the release of GABA on dopamine, leading to high level of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and other area. The increase in dopamine level in the nucleus accumbens leads to the positive reinforcement of opioid addiction (Bartoletti et al., 1999), which is also related to cocaine reinforcing effect (Julien et al., 2008). Stimulation of  µ opioid receptor in the VP is thought to promote motor activity, in part, by red ucing presynaptic release of GABA (Torregrossa and Kalivas, 2008). Repeated cocaine administration results in reduced extracellular GABA in the VP due to increasing stimulation of presynaptic  µ opioid receptors (Tang, et al. 2005). 2. K-opioid receptors ÃŽÅ ¡-opioid receptor system is essential in regulating presynaptic dopamine release and administration of dynorphin (DYN) within the nucleus accumbens (Shippenberg and Rea, 1997). DYN, endogenous ligand for the ÃŽÂ º-opioid receptor prevents the sensitisation that develops to locomotor stimulatory and conditioned reinforcing effect of cocaine. Anatomical studies have shown interaction between the mesolimbic dopamine neurons and neurons containing the opioid peptide dynorphin (Yung and Bolam, 2000. As mentioned above, dynorphin are found in dentritic spine of medium spiny neurons and project to the VTA and nucleus accumbens in which ÃŽÂ º-opioid receptors are expressed. However, the accumbens shell express high density of ÃŽÂ º-opioid receptors (Jayaram and Steketee,). Microdialysis studies have shown that the systemic administration of selective ÃŽÂ º-opioid receptor agonists such as U50488 and U69593 depress the firing rate of mesolimbic dopamine neurons and decreases dopamine overflow in the nucleus accumbens (Shippenberg and Rea, 1997). Therefore, activation of ÃŽÂ º-opioid receptor will inhibit dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens. However, Kuzmin et al., 1997 showed that acute administration of selective ÃŽÂ º-opioid receptor antagonist, nor-binaltorphimine increases dopamine overflow within the nucleus accumbens. In addition to these findings, it is believed that dopamine D1 or D2 receptor agonist, apomorphine, increases dynophin immunoreactivity and prodynorphin mRNA in the nucleus (Li et al., 1990). Therefore, repeated administration of cocaine increases prodynorphin mRNA in the nucleus accumbens and striatum. Taken in to account all these findings, and the role of ÃŽÂ º-opioid receptors in presynaptic modulation of dopamine release, it can be concluded that an increase in the extracellular level of dopamine within the nucleus accumbens results in a compensatory increase in the activity of dynorphinergic neurons. However, this increase is insufficient to prevent the development of behavioural sensitisation. Because many of the above intracellular adaptation involve changes in protein levels, it can be though that regulation of gene expression may be involved in the long-lasting effects of cocaine. Cocaine regulates gene expression It has been reported that one of the early molecular events following cocaine administration is the activation of nuclear protein (CREB) (Konradi et al., 1994). CREB control the changing that occur in synaptic neurons through modulation of the expression of several cAMP-inducible genes. CREB is regulated via phosphorylation at serine-133 (Konradi et al., 1994) The kinase inducible domain (KID) that contains serine-133 amino acid residue is phosphorylated by cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA), and Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases II and IV (CaMK II and IV) (Lonze and Ginty, 2002). Phosphorylation of CREB by PKA and CaMK II and IV results in the expression of immediate early genes (IEGs) including Fos and Jun, which are members of the transcription factor activator protein-1 (AP-1) family (Soderling, 1999). Acute cocaine administration activates DNA-binding activity of the AP-1 and expression c-Fos, FosB and JunB proteins (Hope et al., 1992). Chronic cocaine exposure is believed to reduce the capability of cocaine to express c-Fos, JunB and FosB proteins. This results in prolonged accumulation of à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  FosB proteins (a shorter splice-variant of FosB), which produces more persistent AP-1 complex (Hiroi et al., 1997). Prolonged accumulation of à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  FosB was reported in a variety of knockout and transgenic mice studies. Hiroi et al (1997) showed that mice lacking Fos-B and its shorter splice- variant à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  Fos-B had reduced AP-1 complexes following chronic cocaine exposure and increases cocaine-mediated hyper-locomotion and conditioned place (CPP) preference. They also observed that the long-term over expression of à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  Fos-B increases AP-1 complexes and behavioural sensitisation in both the nucleus accumbens and striatum. Increased neuronal expression of Fos in these regions after cocaine treatment is mediated by increasing D1 dopamine receptor activation, due to high level of extracellular dopamine. Desensitisation Chronic cocaine administration repeatedly stimulates dopamine receptors, as a result, decreases the concentration of dopamine within mesolimbic system and the remaining receptors become less sensitive to dopamine. Decrease in dopamine concentration leads to tolerance. This has been reported in several studies. For example, Maisonneuve et al (1995) observed a reduction in the basal dopamine concentration of rats nucleus accumbens when 10 or 15 mg/kg of cocaine was administered three times every day per hour for 13 days. Additionally, Inada et al (1992) showed that repeated cocaine administration in rats, reduced dopamine response to cocaine striatum 24 h after withdrawal. Decrease in dopaminergic level also leads to behavioural tolerance. Tolerance Tolerance refers to a decrease in response to cocaine due to repeated exposure of the drug (Maisonneuve et al., 1995). The major contributory factor to tolerance is the supersensitivity of D2-like autoreceptors as a result of D1 receptors desensitisation after chronic cocaine treatment (King et al., 1994). King et al showed that following chronic administration of 40 mg/kg of cocaine per day, for 7 days, increases sensitivity of D2-1ike receptors in the nucleus accumbens. Increasing D2 receptors leads to a transient decrease in the levels of GiÃŽÂ ± and GoÃŽÂ ± proteins linked to these receptors (King et al., 1994). Continuous cocaine administration produces tolerance to the inhibitory effects of cocaine on dopamine uptake in striatum and nucleus accumbens. Therefore, blockade of dopamine uptake by cocaine produces a compensatory increase of dopamine reuptake transporters (Letchworth et al, 2001). However, repeated cocaine treatment decreases the mRNA expression of dopamine transporter in the VTA neurons that project to the limbic brain regions during withdraw (Hammer et al., 1997). Polymorphism in the genes of dopamine transporter (DAT1) and receptors could be implicated in the genetic susceptibility to the complications of long-term development use in different individual (Wang et al., 2004). There are two main types of DAT1 genes, the SLC6A3 gene and the 3 untranslated VNTR polymorphism. The SLC6A3 is localised to chromosome 5p15.3 and genetic variation in SLC6A3 are thought to change the expression of DAT1 (Fuke et al., 2001). The variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) polymorphism in the 3untranslated region of DAT1 consists of a 40-bp repetitive sequence and can vary from 3 to 12 repeats. However the two most common alleles are the 9-repeat and the 10-repeat, and several studies have linked these polymorphisms to prolonged psychosis following stimulant withdrawal. Fuke et al (2001) reported that the 10-repeat allele (10R) enhances the expression of the DAT1 protein, while Michelhaugh et al (2001) claimed that the 9-repeat allele (9R) enhanced the DAT1 expression. However both studies found that the DAT1 VNTR is associated with drug addictions. The gene for D2 dopamine receptor (DRD2), TaqI A (rs1800497) is a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) with two variant; A1, the less frequent allele, and A2, the commoner allele. Accumulative evidence from post-mortem brain samples using a [3H] binding ligand and in living subjects using positron emission tomography (PET) showed that the presence of the A1 allele leads to a decrease in D2 dopamine receptor density, as a consequence of chronic cocaine treatment (Thompson et al. 1997). Therefore, the DRD2 A1 allele is implicated in addictive behaviours. Several studies on different populations suggested that the involvement of TaqI A and VNT

Heat of the Day By Elizabeth Bowen Essay

â€Å"Heat of the Day† by Elizabeth Bowen is the reflection of the complexities in the relationships across the generations, in love and war, set at the backdrop of 1942 World War. The story is about a life of Londoners and the traumatic experience they had to undergo when the city was being bombarded during war. â€Å"The Heat of the Day† sees the city being shattered and in this scenario of devastation, how the people try to make the sense of their lives? â€Å"The Heat of the Day† follows with same intensity the flow of the wartime stories written by Bowen in 1945. The story is though about warfare yet there is very little description about the war and that only one instance of the air raid, which happens close to the end of novel. The description of impressions of war and the London has been explicitly referred through the voice of characters with the reality transformed through visionary approach of the city. As described by Neil Corcoran, â€Å"The ‘Heat of the Day’ is a novel in which the panic of possibly losing identity, and of others deceiving you about their identities, operates not only as an agency of plot but as the very texture of style.† (Corcoran, 169) Within the context of the centrally located story is woven several others stories told by protagonists to one another with the purpose to retain their identity which they themselves had found in peril. Stella herself tells false story about her marriage to Roderick, as she wants him to believe that his father Victor was the abandoned party rather than she herself. She does so partly to increase the image of his dead father in the eyes of Roderick and secondly to make herself appear as a femme fatale instead of being a victim. The impression of the war scene can very well be seen in one of the scenes where Harrison is standing in the street and the flames appearing from the distance are helping him to read Stella’s address mentioned on the envelop. The depiction of the fire has been made through the use of image chandelier: â€Å"the Chandelier flare makes the street like a mirrored drawing-room† (Bowen, 315). Inside the flat when the two characters are involved in the conversations, the sounds of guns can be heard seeming to be welcomed, as they made Stella to remain quite. â€Å"The guns rested her by opening up once more† and soon they faded, â€Å"The guns, made fools of, died out again, askance† (Bowen, 319). The importance of war seems to be considered very less with Stella and Harrison being hardly aware of any danger. The language has been used in a very poetic way giving a vivid, lucid and a very realistic touch to the nature and the objects surrounding the characters. Bowen penetrates into the physical objects and events manifesting in the human behaviors and their dreams and missions. With great subtlety, complexity and force, she is able to make characters come alive making them have real experience of the terrific upheavals of the warfare. Her prose is beautifully contrived to give meaning and depth to life experiences of the characters, which continues to follow us after the last page has been read and has been placed down. At many occasions, the scenes are shifted from war torn London to the peace and tranquility of the countryside. The difference is clearly seen between the country life in England around the Victorian hulk and in the neutral Ireland. While reading it, we are made to remember about the blackouts, characters forgetting the names of the places during their train journey, continuous alike confusions between the friend and foe, and the direction to which war is taking in the passing years. Amidst this scenario lies the gripping version of the story of woman and the way she comes to term and understanding of the intolerable situations. In the first chapter itself, we are introduced to Harrison and his rude behavior towards woman who is trying to have a casual conversation with him. From the second chapter onwards, we are introduced to the heroine and with that her ongoing situation of crises and dilemma she has to undergo and her interaction and influence of Harrison on her. Their relationship with each other cannot be judged very easily but when the scenes are read carefully then only the realization of the base on which they are building their terrible relationship is felt that even before Robert makes his entry. The relationship between Stella and her son Roderick is also very beautifully carved while he takes over the Irish inheritance. On the other hand Robert’s mother and sister are both very confusing personalities making fuss all the time on whom Stella would never be able to leave good impression according to Robert. All the characters are very wonderfully drawn. There is also a scene where two women are sharing one apartment at the same time enjoying each other’s company and exchanging own tales of woes to each other. They contribute their bit in easing tension of the main protagonists. Amidst all the surviving lives of the protagonists, tensions ensue, as it becomes known that Robert is giving his support to the opponents. His disillusionment with Dunkirk induces him to adopt the title of a traitor. Climactic is the reason given by Robert for this decision of his, and on the other hand wants to enlighten himself with the most meaningful future by the war ends. In the last chapter, we are introduced to Louie who is artless girl at the Bandstand. She is a widow as her husband succumbs to the vagaries of the war. She with her child now would like to spend rest of her life at the devastated seaside where she had spent all her life as a child. An essence of the reality being transferred can be felt by the way characters have been visualizing many places in the city. All through the novel, Bowen has made special reference to the seasons, time and the lucid description of light. This aspect shows her creative spree in impressionistic technique. How the way Stella is mystified can very well be seen in the following scene: The two stations also, in Stella’s mind, became epitomes of the two most poignant seasons — in spring, in autumn everything telegraphs its mystery to your senses; nothing is trite. And more: in these years the idea of war made you see any peaceful scene as it were through glass (Bowen, 104). This passage is a manifestation of the transfer of reality in the form of metaphor. With the help of the impressions and metaphors, Bowen gives vivid description of the city London after the bombardment. The whole city is broken with almost several of the landmarks lost. As critics said there is great exposure of irony in the fiction retold and the sense of solidity and individualization in characterization increase the credibility of the most sensuous fiction. Bowen has captured London with such a great dexterity and with greatest blitz that even after reading the whole novel, the memories of this wartime London would haunt the readers for a long time.